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Sects and Secret Societies
In the River-lake, a man cannot decide for himself.
Unlike the rural bandits of the Lulin or aloof
wanderers of the Wulin, secret society members belonged to the urban
community. Derived from mutual-benefit societies, the tang (society
hall) was a community center, where members could gather to socialize.
During times of disaster or hardship, the society provided financial aid
or shelter. In other circumstances, they offered physical protection of
life and property. In essence, the secret society was a substitute lineage
which welcomed destitute peasants, demobilized soldiers, and other social
outcasts of the River-lake. It offered security, and a sense of family
which members would otherwise not have.
In order to maintain
order in a diverse company, codes of conduct were adopted by secret societies.
Rigid discipline was practiced, and initiation rites and trials by ordeal
were required for entrance. Members of groups like the Hong-men were expected
to follow the 72 articles, the 36 oaths, and the 21 ordinances, as well
as know the 10 taboos, and the 10 penalties. Such restrictions were used
to exercise control over society members, and had the added effect of allowing
members to commit crimes with an easy conscience, provided that such acts
were permitted within the system. However, those who did not observe the
rules of the society were punished with draconian harshness.
Secret societies could be categorized into to major
groups -- those influenced by religion, and those which were overtly political
in nature. Secret societies of the former variety were most common in northern
China, where most groups were offshoots of the White Lotus society. Secret
societies of the south were primarily of the latter variety, particularly
during the Qing dynasty. Yet despite the differences in their backgrounds,
there was a large degree of overlap between these types of secret societies.
Organization and goals of political and religious secret societies converged,
due to the adoption of many aspects of worship and ritual by political
groups. These secret societies assembled under the guise of religion to
avoid government persecution, and rebels frequently went about their activities
disguised as monks. The fact that monasteries had been granted the privilege
of buying and selling identity documents since Shaolin monks aided Tang
Taizhong in 622 A.D. also resulted in monasteries becoming refuges for
political dissidents. This of course led to the suppression of religious
sects, which were also occasionally persecuted when their influence became
too widespread. For their own defense, these sects would develop anti-dynastic
agendas after being driven underground.
Religious elements had
a profound influence on secret societies, and were influenced by the Chinese
utopian ideal. Since the Tang dynasty, the slogan of the secret society
has been 'Peace and Equality.' Secret societies claimed to seek parity
between commoner and gentry elite. In addition, secret societies welcomed
women to their ranks. In contrast to mainstream tradition, many secret
societies asserted equality of the sexes, and women were able to achieve
high rank in such societies. In their efforts to protect the interests
of the disenfranchised, secret societies promoted mutual aid, and instructed
members in the martial arts. They organized village defense forces so that
peasants could resist the burden of heavy taxes by corrupt officials and
landlords, and often promulgated moral and social reform.
The leadership of secret societies came from the
lumpen intelligentsia -- degree holders unable or unwilling to find jobs,
failed examination candidates, ex-military officers, yamen clerks, monks,
priests, and other literate members of the River-lake. Secret societies
offered educated men who could not fit into the roles prescribed for officials
with normal government careers an alternative path to achieve power and
status. From a political standpoint, secret societies functioned in a manner
similar to gentry clan lineages. They sought to influence local government
by bullying weak officials or bribing corrupt ones. If the government was
strong, their activities fell more along the lines of petty outlawry, smuggling,
and resisting tax-collectors. The militias that were organized to suppress
such activities were only nominally led by the local gentry. The actual
training and command of the troops was relegated to subalterns, who were
often members of secret societies. Further
infiltration by secret society members allowed militia units to be transformed
to bandit or rebel group under the proper conditions. During times of disorder,
foreign invasion, and weak government, secret societies frequently instigated
peasant revolts, and allied themselves with professional bandit groups
to challenge the imperial state. In fact, secret societies have been directly
involved in every peasant rebellion throughout Chinese history.
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